In 1913, a gentleman called Max Ringelmann conducted a fascinating study, one that can help explain a lot of what we see in school classrooms. He wanted to investigate how individual effort changes when people work in groups. In order to assess this, participants were asked to pull on a rope as hard as they could. First, they did it alone and then in teams of increasing size.
The results were striking. As more people were added, individual effort decreased. Here’s how average individual effort declined with group size:
- 1 person = 100% effort
- 2 people: 93% of solo effort
- 3 people: 85% of solo effort
- 4 people: 77% of solo effort
- 5 people: 70% of solo effort
- 6 people: 63% of solo effort
- 7 people: 56% of solo effort
- 8 people: 49% of solo effort
This demonstrated that as group size increased, personal accountability decreased, leading to lower effort. Ringelmann’s findings laid the foundation for future research into group dynamics and what is now known as social loafing.
What Is Social Loafing?
Social Loafing refers to the tendency of individuals to exert less effort when working in or as part of a group, compared to when working alone. It occurs when people feel their individual contribution is less visible or less essential to the outcome, leading to a decline in motivation and effort. The larger the group, the more likely it is that social loafing will occur.
Research has since confirmed and expanded upon Ringelmann’s findings. Evidence suggests that people shouted or clapped less loudly in groups, again highlighting reduced effort in collective settings.
Social loafing happens for several reasons: diffusion of responsibility, reduced personal accountability and the belief that others will pick up the slack. It’s especially common in tasks where individual contributions are tricky to isolate or measure. Research suggests that when people feel as though their individual contributions are identifiable, therefore making them accountable, they are more motivated to try harder.
We have had the pleasure of collaborating with Teach Like a Champion’s Doug Lemov and were curious about his take on this phenomenon. When we showed him these findings, he summarised it perfectly by saying,
“Effort is diffused when individuals don’t feel accountable.”
And this is where Cold-Calling plays a key role.
Enter Cold-Calling
Cold-Calling is the act of choosing a student to answer a question in class. It is contrasted with self-selection, which sees students opt in to participation by putting their hands up. The psychological contract of self-selection is that students know they won’t be called upon if their hand is down.
The problem with this is that it doesn’t prompt students to think hard. They know that they can switch off and coast. There is limited accountability. And much like the rope-pulling participants in Max Ringelmann’s study, this leads to them putting less effort in.
Let’s consider three studies that show this:
Study 1 – Increasing voluntary engagement
In the seminal study on Cold-Calling, researchers found that in environments that rely mainly on self-selection (i.e., students are only called upon if they have their hands up), only about half the class wanted to participate. Interestingly, this rate stays stubbornly at this level over a number of weeks, suggesting that the unwritten rules of the classroom about who participates get set quite early.
And yet, in classrooms that use a lot of Cold-Calling, not only do we see more students wanting to participate at the beginning of term, but this effect increases over time as presumably students get more competent and confident in participating. This suggests that if done well and consistently, Cold-Calling doesn’t make students more stressed about participating. If anything, it liberates them into wanting to do it more.
Study 2 – Beneficial for shy girls
Another study also found that frequent Cold-Calling can boost student participation in classroom discussions – not just by prompting responses in the moment but by making students more willing to speak up on their own. This effect was especially noticeable for girls, who were initially less likely than boys to volunteer answers. The results here showed that in classrooms where Cold-Calling was used often, girls ended up participating just as much as boys. This suggests Cold-Calling not only helps engage the whole class but may also level the playing field, giving quieter students, particularly girls, a helpful prompt to participate.
Study 3 – Two types of Cold-Calling
Cold-Calling is clearly an effective way to increase classroom engagement, but how can the type of Cold-Calling impact students? An interesting study found that not all Cold-Calling is made equal. Researchers identified two distinct styles: collaborative and unconditional. Collaborative Cold-Calling invited students into a shared discussion, encouraging them to think deeply and contribute ideas, which helped them feel more included and valued. In contrast, unconditional Cold-Calling felt more like a demand for quick answers, often increasing stress and limiting meaningful discussion.
The key takeaway is that how teachers use Cold-Calling matters: when it’s framed as a dialogue rather than a test, it’s more likely to build confidence and lead to richer classroom conversations.
Top Tips for Cold-Calling
To get the most out of Cold-Calling in your lessons, it’s important to avoid some common pitfalls:
- Don’t ditch hands-up entirely – Cold-Calling doesn’t mean you have to ban raised hands. When students volunteer, it signals engagement and helps set a positive classroom norm. It also gives you a quick check on how well the class understands a topic.
- Avoid using Cold-Calling to catch students out – The goal isn’t to expose those who weren’t paying attention. Doing so can create a climate of fear. Instead, aim to support students to succeed by ensuring they feel prepared to respond.
- Give students time to think – Many teachers move too quickly after asking a question. Building in wait time helps students think more deeply and boosts the quality of their answers.
- Handle wrong answers with care – If a student gives an incorrect response, avoid embarrassment by shifting attention to a group discussion or asking others to build on the idea.
- Use cold-calling alongside other strategies – Combine Cold-Calling with methods like Think, Pair, Share or mini whiteboards to keep discussions inclusive and make student thinking visible.
Final Thoughts
It is fascinating to think that a study based on how hard participants tugged on a rope, from over one hundred years ago, can give us an insight into what we see now in our classrooms. The message is clear: accountability matters. If we feel that others will do the work and that our own contribution isn’t recognised and validated, we are unlikely to give 100%.
But by Cold-Calling in a warm, nurturing and collaborative way, we give students permission, confidence and opportunity to engage and think hard. And doing so will help improve their learning.
